Irish American Heritage Month.  This was established by presidential proclamation to draw attention to and rectify the limited focus on women in historical studies. For the theme for the Year 2003, and for educational materials, contact the Women's History Project, Windsor, CA, 707-636-2888.

 National Women's History Month.  This was established by presidential proclamation to draw attention to and rectify the limited focus on women in historical studies. For the theme for the Year 2003, and for educational materials, contact the Women's History Project, Windsor, CA, 707-838-6000.

 Blanche K. Bruce (1841–1898) : African American, Legislator.  Born into slavery, Bruce represented Mississippi in the United States Senate from 1875 to 1881. The only African American to serve a full term in the Senate during Reconstruction, Bruce opposed the exclusion of Chinese from the United States and fought for citizenship rights for American Indians.

 Ralph Ellison (1914–1994) : African American.  Writer. Introduced to literature by his mother, who worked as a domestic, Ellison attended Tuskegee Institute on a music scholarship. However, in 1936 he moved to New York City, where he began to write short stories while supporting himself as a freelance photographer and audio engineer. He served in the merchant marines during World War II. After seven years of effort, he published Invisible Man in 1952, which won the National Book Award. Since then, the book has become a classic of African American literature and has been translated into seventeen languages. He taught and lectured widely, was appointed to the American Academy of Arts and Letters, served on the National Council on the Arts and Humanities and the Carnegie Commission on public television, and was a trustee of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. He died on this day at his home in New York City.

 Independence Movement Day : South Korea.  Although Japan annexed Korea in 1910, a movement for independence arose in 1919. However, it was not until the end of World War II that Korea became independent, and then only as the two separate states of North and South Korea.

 Three-One Day (Samil-Jol) : Korea.  From 1905 to 1945, Japan dominated Korea. This day commemorates the March movement of 1919 of massive demonstrations against Japanese rule. The movement was suppressed and Korea, although divided at the 38th parallel, became independent only after the end of World War II.

 Ash Wednesday (beginning of Lent) : Christian.  This marks the beginning of Lent, a 40-day period of prayer and fasting preceding Easter Sunday (February 9 to March 27, excluding Sundays). It is observed in memory of Jesus’ 40 days of fasting in the desert. In the early centuries of Christianity, there were strict requirements for fasting during the period of preparation for Easter. Although these rules have been relaxed in the Western church, many Roman Catholics and Protestants choose to give up a favorite food or activity during Lent. There are many symbolic meanings to the use of ashes on this holiday. Generally, ashes symbolize death. The priest or minister’s placing of ashes on one’s forehead in the shape of a cross is part of the preparation for fasting and resistance to temptation by those observing Lent that ends in the symbolic renewal of life on Easter. The word Lent comes from Middle English lenten or lente, from the Old English lencten or lengten, meaning spring—the time of year when the days begin to lengthen.

Recognizing the Festival/Holiday: Before inviting someone to lunch or hosting a meal, check to see whether invitee is observing a special diet for this period. (m)

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 Granting of citizenship to Puerto Ricans (1917) : United States.  On this date the United States Congress passed the Jones Act, which conferred U.S. citizenship on Puerto Ricans and gave them the right to elect representatives to both houses of the territorial legislature. The act was opposed by some of the most prominent Puerto Rican leaders because they felt it was a poor substitute for full independence. (See entries for April 16 and July 17.)

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 Alexander Crummell (1819–1898) : African American.  Minister, missionary, and writer. After his ordination as an Episcopal minister, Crummell traveled to England to raise funds to support his work among African Americans. He decided instead to enroll at Cambridge University, where he took a degree. From 1853 to 1873 he worked as a missionary and teacher of theology in Monrovia, Liberia. He then returned to the United States and served as rector of a church in Washington, D.C. Crummell's published works include collections of sermons and essays on contemporary topics of concern to African Americans.

 Doll Festival (Hina Matsuri) : Japan.  This is one of the major social festivals in traditional Japan. There is much visiting among family members and friends, and visitors bring gifts of dolls. The traditional holiday foods are red-bean-flavored rice, rice dumplings wrapped in cherry leaves, and a special sweet cake.

 Indian Appropriations Act (1871) : United States.  This act declared that no American Indian tribe was to be recognized as a nation empowered to make treaties with the U.S. government. It asserted the right of the federal government to manage American Indian affairs without tribal consent.

 National Day : Morocco.  In 1915 Morocco became independent from France and Spain. The king is especially honored on this day. The holiday feast traditionally includes mechoui (whole roasted lamb) and pastilla (salted pie filled with lamb, eggs, pigeon, chicken, vegetables, and spices).

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 Garrett Morgan (1877–1963) : African American.  Inventor. Morgan patented two widely known inventions, the gas mask (1914) and the three-light traffic signal system (1923).

 Kazimierz (Casimir) Pulaski (1748–1779) : Polish.  Soldier. An aristocrat and patriot, Pulaski left Poland after participating in a failed uprising protesting the increasing dominance of foreign powers in Polish affairs. He then offered his services to the American Revolution. He fought in a number of engagements before being mortally wounded at the siege of Savannah, Georgia.

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 Independence Day : Ghana.  On this date in 1957, the British territories of the Gold Coast and Togoland became the independent nation of Ghana.

 Beginning of Great Lent : Eastern Orthodox Christian.  Also known as Green Monday, this begins the Lenten season based on the Julian calendar followed by Eastern Orthodox Christians. Eastern Orthodox Lent, known as Great Lent, includes Sundays and officially ends on Lazarus Saturday, the day before Palm Sunday, although fasting continues during Holy Week. While many people no longer fast for forty days, most people observe the fast strictly for the two weeks preceding Easter. In Greece, a carnival season called apokria precedes the start of Lent. Apokria begins with a feast of roast kid or lamb, followed by two weeks of festivities including parades of masked figures. The third week begins with Tyrini—Cheese Sunday—when cheese, a food forbidden during Lent, is eaten in pies. The following day is Clean Monday, and is a national holiday when many children appear in their Carnival costumes. The pastime of the day is flying special hexagonal kites decorated with geometric designs. Traditionally, all animal foods including fish are forbidden during Lent and some people also eschew oil. Vegetables and legumes are therefore the main Lenten foods of Greece, with a little shellfish—permitted because, unlike fin fish, it lacks blood.

Recognizing the Festival/Holiday: Before inviting someone to lunch or hosting a meal, check to see whether invitee is observing a special diet for this period. (m)

 Great Lent begins : Coptic Orthodox Christian.  Also known as the Great Fast, this begins the Lenten season for the Coptic Orthodox Christians, who follow the Julian calendar. It starts with a pre-Lent fast of one week, followed by a 40-day fast commemorating Christ’s fasting on the mountain. The fast of Great Lent, which includes Sundays, officially ends on the Saturday before Holy Week, known as Lazarus Saturday, although fasting continues during Holy Week. During this time, no animal products, such as meat, poultry, fish, milk, eggs, or butter, are allowed. Moreover, no food or drink may be taken between sunrise and sunset.

Recognizing the Festival/Holiday: Before inviting someone to lunch or hosting a meal, check to see whether invitee is observing the fast for this period. (m)

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 International Women's Day : International.  The movement to create an International Women's Day began as part of the socialist movement for greater women's rights, particularly the right to vote. First designated as the last Sunday in February by the Conference of Socialist Women in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1910, it was later changed to be uniformly celebrated on March 8 to honor women's role in the Russian Revolution. With the resurgence of feminism in the late 1960s, International Women's Day gained renewed interest as a day to celebrate women's lives and work.

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 Raul Julia (1940–1994) : Puerto Rican.  Actor. One of the most versatile and successful actors of his generation, Julia won acclaim in dramatic and musical roles in the New York theater and for a variety of performances in films and television. His stage roles ranged from Shakespeare's Othello and Prospero to Mack the Knife in The Threepenny Opera and Don Quixote in Man of La Mancha. His best known film roles include that of Gomez, the comically macabre father in The Addams Family, and Valentin, the courageous political prisoner in the drama Kiss of the Spider Woman.

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 Lorenzo da Ponte (1749–1838) : Italian American.  Librettist, businessman, and teacher. Da Ponte immigrated to the United States at the age of 57, having won fame in Europe as the librettist for Mozart's operas Le nozze di Figaro, Don Giovanni, and Cosi fan tutte. After arriving in the United States, da Ponte worked as a grocer, impresario, and teacher of Italian at Columbia University. As one of the prime movers in the establishment of the Italian Opera House in New York in 1832, da Ponte helped to promote the appreciation of Italian culture in the United States.

 Harriet Tubman (1820?–1913) : African American.  Tubman became the "conductor" on the Underground Railroad, a clandestine system for helping slaves escape to freedom in the North. An escaped slave, she earned the name "Moses" for her heroic work in leading some 400 slaves to freedom. She died on this date.

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 Restoration of Statehood Day : Lithuania.  Public holiday.

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 Sun Yat-sen's Death (1866–1925) : People's Republic of China.  Revolutionary leader. Sun Yat-sen was the leader of China's 1911 revolution, which overthrew the Ch'ing Dynasty that had ruled China since 1644, and founder of the Republic of China. He is remembered on the anniversary of his death in 1925 in the People's Republic of China.

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 Holi (hah-lee) (3/13-3/14) : Hindu.  This two-day holiday celebrates the coming of spring throughout India. Large bonfires are lit, and coconuts and other foods are thrown into the fire. Games and folk dancing take place as well as the throwing of colored powder and water on friends. (m)

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 Albert Einstein (1879–1955) : Jewish German American.  This begins the new year 538 of the Nanakshahi Era for the Sikhs, one of the largest religious groups in India. The first year of the Nanakshahi Era is 1469, the year of birth of the founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak.

 New Year : Sikh.  This begins the new year 538 of the Nanakshahi Era for the Sikhs, one of the largest religious groups in India. The first year of the Nanakshahi Era is 1469, the year of birth of the founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak.

 Purim (poor-îm) (Feast of Lots) : Jewish.  This festive holiday celebrates the rescue of the ancient Persian Jews from a plot to destroy them. The king's advisor, Haman, cast lots to choose the day for carrying out his plan. Esther, the Jewish queen, persuaded her husband to spare the Jews. Fasting on the day before Purim commemorates Esther's fasting before seeing the king to plead for the Jewish people. The "Megillah," the story of Purim, is read in the synagogue. Children twirl gragers (noisemakers) to drown out Haman's name each time it is mentioned. Homentashen, special pastries in the form of Haman's hat, are eaten. Gifts are distributed to the poor as well as exchanged among family and friends. (m)

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 Eusebio Francisco Kino (1645–1711) : Italian.  Jesuit missionary and explorer. Kino is noted for his success in making converts among the Pima Indians while respecting their customs, and for the historical value of his letters, journals, and maps. From 1687 to the end of his life he worked in Pimeria Alta (now southern Arizona and northern Sonora in Mexico), where he founded a number of missions and introduced the Indians to cattle and to new crops. This day is the anniversary of his death.

 National Day : Hungary.  Public holiday.

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 First publication of Freedom's Journal (1827) : African American.  On this date Samuel E. Cornish and John B. Russwurm began publication of the first African American newspaper. The first edition of Freedom's Journal was devoted entirely to issues of slavery and discrimination.

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 Bayard Rustin (1912–1987) : African American.  Civil rights activist and pacifist. Rustin worked from 1941 to 1953 for the Fellowship of Reconciliation, a group seeking peaceful solutions to world problems; served as executive director of the War Resisters League from 1953 to 1955; and worked for the next five years with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. One of the chief organizers of the 1963 March on Washington for civil rights, Rustin also traveled to Africa, Europe, and Asia to support local protest movements for social justice.

 St. Patrick's Day : Ireland.  Tradition holds that Ireland's patron saint died on this date in A.D. 493 at the age of 106. The anniversary of his death is celebrated in Ireland as a national holiday, with green, the color of the day, signifying undying gratitude to the memory of St. Patrick, who brought Christianity to Ireland. The shamrock is worn to commemorate its use by the saint as a symbol of the Trinity. St. Patrick's Day is celebrated by people of Irish descent all over the world as an expression of pride in their heritage.

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 San Jose Day : Colombia, Venezuela.  Public holiday.

 Feast of St. Joseph : Roman Catholic.  This feast day honors St. Joseph, the husband of Mary. The celebration is especially important in Italy, because during the Middle Ages when Sicily was plagued with a horrible drought, St. Joseph (San Giuseppe) answered the people's prayers to him by ending the drought. A giant feast was held to honor San Giuseppe, a tradition that continues to this day. On the eve of March 19, bonfires are lit in the streets. The next day, an elderly carpenter is chosen to act the part of San Giuseppe, while a poor girl is chosen to play the part of Mary, and a young orphan boy plays the infant Jesus. A midday mass is held, followed by an outdoor banquet where crespoli di riso (rice made into sausages and fried in honey) and sfinci (cream-puff fritters with ricotta filling) are eaten. After the banquet, the Holy Family mounts richly adorned mules and leads a procession while being showered with gifts. The feast became widespread in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and in 1621 Pope Gregory XV made the Feast of St. Joseph a holy day of obligation.

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 Independence Day : Tunisia.  This holiday commemorates the treaty of March 20, 1956, by which France recognized Tunisia as a sovereign nation.

 Now Rouz (now-rooz) (New Year) : Afghanistan, Iran.  This is the traditional new year, coming at the time of the spring equinox and marking year 1385. The two days before Now Rouz are celebrated as holidays, as are the thirteen days following Now Rouz. Fireworks are set off on New Year’s Eve, symbolizing the victory of fire over darkness, a reenactment of the moment of Creation. On New Year’s morning, children are given gold coins, cakes, and decorated hard-boiled eggs, symbolizing fruitfulness and the renewal of the world. The number seven is considered a sacred number, linked to the idea of Creation. Afghans celebrate with special dishes, including miwa naurozee, a compote made of seven fruits. In Iran, families gather around a table set with seven symbolic foods—sprouted seeds, hyacinth, sweet wheat pudding, vinegar, sumac, apples, and olives, the names for all of these beginning with sen, the Iranian letter s. (m)

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 Benito Pablo Juárez (1806–1872) : Mexico.  Political leader. One of the national heroes of Mexico, Juárez served his country as minister of justice, vice president, and president during the turbulent period from 1855 until his death. Among Juárez's achievements are both the successful military resistance to the French emperor's attempt to impose a puppet ruler, the archduke Maximilian of Austria, as emperor of Mexico, and the institution of a number of civil reforms.

 Human Rights Day : South Africa.  This day commemorates those Blacks who were killed at Sharpeville in 1960 and those who lost their lives in the struggle against apartheid.

 Vernal Equinox Day (Shumbun No Hi) : Japan.  This celebrates the beginning of spring and is a public holiday in Japan. (m)

 Youth Day : Tunisia.  Public holiday.

 Naw Ruz (New Year) : Baha'i.  The Baha’i year consists of 19 months with 19 days in each month. The new year is preceded by a 19-day period of fasting beginning on March 2 and ending on March 20, during which Baha’is set time aside for prayer and meditation. Children under 15, the ill, and pregnant women and nursing mothers are exempt from the fast. Baha’i days begin at sunset, so the new year starts at sundown on March 20.

 Naw Ruz (New Year) : Zoroastrian.  Celebrated at the time of the vernal equinox, this is the beginning of the Zoroastrian new year according to the Fasli seasonal calendar. The most elaborate of the Gahambars, or feasts of obligation, observed during the Zoroastrian year, Naw Ruz celebrates Ahura Mazda, the Lord of Wisdom, and the holy fire symbolic of His divine light. The sixth day of Naw Ruz, called the Great Naw Ruz, is the most important day of celebration, since it is believed to be the birthday of the Zoroastrian prophet Zarathushtra. Patterned after the Gregorian calendar, the Fasli calendar keeps in harmony with the seasons by intercalculating one day every four years, with the date of Naw Ruz being fixed on March 21. According to the Shenshai, or Shahanshahi, calendar followed by Parsi Zoroastrians, Naw Ruz is observed on a different date. (See entry for Birthday of Prophet Zarathushtra.)

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 Robert Smalls (1839–1915) : African American.  War hero and legislator. As a slave forced to serve in the Confederate navy, Smalls took control of his vessel and turned it over to Union forces. He then served as a pilot and later captain in the United States Navy. After the War he served in the South Carolina legislature and for eight years in the United States Congress.

 Arab League Day : Lebanon.  Public holiday.

 Emancipation Day : Puerto Rico.  On this day in 1873 the Spanish colonial government of Puerto Rico abolished slavery, fulfilling the commitment made after the Lares uprising of 1868. (See entry for September 23.)

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 Republic Day : Pakistan.  In its movement for independence from Great Britain, India had an internal conflict as well between its Hindu and Muslim populations, each wanting a separate area over which they could rule. On this day in 1940, the All India Muslim League adopted a resolution calling for a separate Muslim homeland. In 1947, under the provisions of the Indian Independence Act from Great Britain, two states, a predominately Hindu India and a predominately Muslim Pakistan, were established. On this day in 1956, Pakistan declared itself a republic.

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 Arturo Toscanini (1867–1957) : Italian American.  Orchestra conductor. Toscanini, one of the great virtuoso conductors of the early twentieth century, first came to prominence as a conductor of operas. After serving as musical director of La Scala, the opera house of Milan in his native Italy, and then of the Metropolitan Opera in New York, he became conductor of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, and finally of the NBC Symphony, sponsored by the radio network, which broadcast his performances to millions of homes across the nation. He was legendary for his phenomenal memory, his attention to detail, and his powers of interpretation, particularly in his performances of Verdi, Beethoven, and Wagner.

 Independence Day : Greece.  During the early 19th century, Greeks throughout the world joined a secret society, the Philikê Hetairia (Friendly Association), whose purpose was to collect money and arms for a revolution to free Greece from Turkish rule. In March of 1821 the head of the organization, Alexander Ypsilanti, entered Turkish territory with a group of armed followers and declared the independence of Greece. Although his uprising was crushed, it is remembered as the first event in Greece's struggle for independence.

 The Annunciation : Christian.  Based on the gospel in Luke 1:26–56, this holy day celebrates the Angel Gabriel's announcement to Mary of Galilee that she would become the mother of Jesus.

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 Henry O. Flipper (1856–1940) : African American.  Military officer. Henry Flipper was the first Black West Point graduate. Although the fifth Black accepted to West Point, he was the first to graduate and in 1877 became the first Black commissioned officer in the United States Army. Flipper described his successful struggle against ostracism and prejudice in The Colored Cadet at West Point (1878). He joined the Tenth Cavalry, one of two all-Black army units. At Fort Sill in the Oklahoma territory, he perfected a system for draining mosquito-infested stagnant water that caused outbreaks of malaria at the fort. In 1881, he was court-martialed on charges of embezzlement. A review of the trial record at the time concluded that the charges were dubious, but President Chester Arthur refused to set the verdict aside. In 1976, the United States Army lifted Flipper's dishonorable discharge, recognizing that the conviction was racially motivated. On February 19, 1999, President Clinton granted a posthumous pardon to Flipper. Flipper has also been honored at West Point with an annual award given in his name to an outstanding cadet, and with a section of the library named after him.

 National Day : Bangladesh.  Formerly the eastern part of Pakistan, Bangladesh is the world's 139th independent nation, having emerged as a sovereign, independent state on December 16, 1971. March 26, 1971 marks the day the newly formed Bangladesh government declared independence from Pakistan.

 Birthday of Prophet Zarathushtra (Khordad Sal) : Zoroastrian.  This holiday, known as the Great Naw Ruz, celebrates the birth of the Persian prophet Zarathushtra, who founded Zoroastrianism. Known in Greece as Zoroaster, Zarathushtra is believed by scholars to have lived sometime between 1400 and 1000 B.C., although the Zoroastrian tradition teaches that he lived between the early 600s and the mid-500s B.C. Zoroastrianism originated in the Russian Steppes of Central Asia, along the northern border of the Persian Empire near the Aral Sea.

In a vision he received as a young man, Zarathushtra was called upon by God to proclaim His Manthra, or thought-provoking message, to humanity. Zarathushtra became the Manthran, or great thinker, the harbinger of God’s message to mankind. After the revelation, Zarathushtra composed the Gathas, hymns that were collected into a sacred book known as the Avesta. Zarathushtra propounded that the universe eminated through Global Wisdom and that the cosmos continues to be governed by the Supreme Divine Intellect of God, or Ahura Mazda.

Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion believing in one God who was the creator of all things and the source of all that is good. Zoroastrians believe that life is a constant struggle between the spirit of good, Spenta Mainyu, and the spirit of evil, Angra Mainyu. People must renounce evil and practice good thoughts, good words, and good deeds, for at their death Ahura Mazda will pass judgment upon them before they can enter the kingdom of everlasting joy. A Zoroastrian progresses toward God by choosing to do good—all mortals are equal before God, differing only in their degree of righteousness, and each individual is responsible for his or her own fate.

Zoroastrianism is based on the ethical values of truth and justice, and the universal message of the equality of all people. Modern Zoroastrians read from the Avesta, practice traditional purification habits, and attend rituals at fire temples. They are required to pray five times during the day, saying a special prayer for each part of the day. The prayers must be said in front of a fire or a symbolic replica of a fire, as fire represents the divine light and is a symbol for Ahura Mazda. Many concepts in the Judeo-Christian and Islamic religious traditions are rooted in Zoroastrianism. After King Nebuchadnezzar exiled the Jews to Babylon in the sixth century B.C., Babylon was conquered by Cyrus the Great, Emperor of Persia, who was a Zoroastrian. Thus Judaism came under the influence of Zoroastrianism and adopted many of its doctrines, doctrines that would pass from Judaism into Christianity and Islam. These include the beliefs in Monotheism, Heaven and Hell, Satan, the Resurrection, the coming of the Messiah, and the Last Judgment, and the practice of five daily prayers, which is one of the Five Pillars of Islam.

The Muslim conquest of Persia in the mid A.D. 600s led to a decline in the practice of Zoroastrianism. However, several groups carried the faith into Iran and other countries. Some Zoroastrian refugees fleeing Muhammadan persecu-tion in the seventh century settled in the Bombay area of India. Their descendants are called Parsis, to denote the region from where they had come—Pars, or Persia.

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 Edmund Muskie (1914–1996) : Polish American.  Governor, senator, presidential candidate, secretary of state. Edmund Muskie was a long-time leader of the Democratic Party, holding many high offices in both state and federal government. Born in the mill town of Rumford, Maine, one of six children of a Polish immigrant tailor, he became the Governor of Maine and later its senator for 21 years. He ran as the Democratic Party's vice presidential candidate with Hubert Humphrey in 1968. Under the Carter administration, he became secretary of state.

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 Sean O'Casey (1880–1964) : Irish.  Playwright. O'Casey is best known for his tragicomic dramas set in the poor neighborhoods of Dublin during the Irish uprising against the British and the subsequent civil war.

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 César Chávez (1927–1993) : Mexican American.  Labor leader and activist. A migrant farm worker who became a nationally respected voice for social justice, Chávez spent his life combating the poverty and discrimination suffered by Mexicans and Mexican Americans, particularly agricultural laborers. In 1962 he began organizing farm workers into a union that three years later joined with a Filipino union in a strike against California grape growers for better wages and more humane working conditions. (The two groups later merged as the United Farm Workers.) Table grape producers held out for five years while Chávez focused national attention on the plight of farm workers. A national consumer boycott helped bring the strike to a successful conclusion in 1970. (See entry for September 30.)

 Jack Johnson (1878–1946) : African American.  Prizefighter. Johnson was the world's first Black heavyweight champion, holding the title from 1908 to 1915.

 Octavio Paz (1931–1998) : Mexican.  Writer. Octavio Paz was Mexico's leading poet and essayist and one of the world's leading figures in literature. He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in Literature in 1990 and praised for "impassioned writing with wide horizons, characterized by sensuous intelligence and humanistic integrity." He was widely known for his essay "The Labyrinth of Solitude" and his epic poem " Sunstone." In addition to his writing, Octavio Paz had a distinguished diplomatic career, serving as Mexico's consul and ambassador to such countries as France, Japan, and India.

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